In the second century BCE, Greek historian and geographer Agatharchides wrote about the severe working conditions of the criminals and prisoners of war who toiled in ancient Egyptian gold mines: “And those who have been condemned in this way—and they are of a great multitude and all have their feet bound—work at their tasks unceasingly both by day and throughout the entire night.”
Archaeologists have discovered rare iron shackles that would have been used to bind the feet of workers, as described in Agatharchides’ text, in the ancient Egyptian gold mine of Ghozza. The artifacts highlight the harsh conditions of gold mine workers in ancient Egypt during the second half of the third century BCE, despite the site previously showing little evidence of forced labor. Bérangère Redon, an archaeologist at the History and Sources of the Ancient Worlds laboratory in France, detailed these findings in a study published mid-March in the journal Antiquity.
Though mining in ancient Egypt dates back as far as 1500 BCE, the region’s Hellenistic period (332–30 BCE) under the rule of the Macedonian and Greek Ptolemaic dynasty saw a particular increase in mining activity. In fact, the Ptolemies opened almost 40 mines during their reign to fund military campaigns and construction projects. One such mine, Samut North, revealed that the miners lived in guarded dormitories, according to the study.
Ghozza, however, did not yield much evidence of forced labor. Instead, archaeologists discovered residential neighborhoods, streets, baths, administrative buildings, and even records of wages for some of the workers, according to the study. Overall, the findings initially suggest a freer environment than that of Samut North. That is, until January 2023, when the team unearthed iron shackles within a group of buildings dedicated to storage, food preparation, and creating or repairing metal objects. The artifacts, which are some of the oldest of their kind ever discovered in the Mediterranean, include over a dozen foot-binding shackles.
“These shackles were not meant for restraining animals, as rope ties were typically used for that purpose in the Eastern Desert,” Redon wrote in the study. “Instead, they were designed for human use; when closed directly around a prisoner’s ankles, these shackles could not have been removed without assistance. While they allowed the hands to remain free, walking with them would have been slow and exhausting, particularly given their weight.”
The shackles suggest that some of the workers at Ghozza were engaged in forced labor. They also resemble other shackles discovered in a Greek silver mine in the 1870s. Among other evidence, the resemblance suggests that Greek and Macedonian mining technology—including tools to enforce labor—was utilized in Egyptian mines during the Hellenistic period.
“The discovery of the shackles at Ghozza serves as a reminder of the harsh realities faced by workers in the Ptolemaic gold mines. Beneath the grandeur of Egypt’s wealth and the imposing mountains of the Eastern Desert lies a history of exploitation,” Redon wrote. “The gold extracted from these mines helped finance the ambitions of Egypt’s rulers, but it came at a significant human cost,” Redon added.
It’s worth noting that ancient Egypt’s reliance on forced labor was not unique—many ancient civilizations did the same. Archaeologists now hope to uncover the workers’ living quarters at Ghozza, which could shed light on whether they were free laborers or forced into work.
